On the early evolution of parallelodontid Arcoidea (Bivalvia)

 

Authors: Amler MRW, Friedel JC

Published in: Bulletin of Geosciences, volume 100, issue 4; pages: 431 - 444; Received 28 May 2025; Accepted in revised form 21 November 2025; Online 31 December 2025

Keywords: Parallelodontidae, Parallelodon, evolution, radiation, Devonian, Rhenotypic Facies, Hercynotypic Facies,

full text (PDF, 1.8 MB)

Export to RIS

 

Abstract

The Parallelodontidae is one of six families within the arcoid Bivalvia that are considered to have a temporal range extending from the Ordovician to the Recent. Nevertheless, its origin and early diversification remain poorly understood, despite over 150 years of research. We reviewed the Devonian and pre-Devonian taxa attributed to the Parallelodontidae with respect to parallelodontid morphology in the strict sense, particularly shell outline and hinge characteristics. Out of some fifty species, only a few match the typical parallelodontid morphology. Most of them can only vaguely be attributed to the Parallelodontidae, as poor preservation can obscure diagnostic features, causing potential confusion with coeval genera of the Heterodonta and Protobranchia with comparable external morphology. All Ordovician and Silurian taxa previously attributed to Parallelodon or presumed to possess parallelodontid characteristics turned out to be misclassified. Parallelodon mandelensis from the upper Emsian shallow marine Rhenotypic (Rhenish) Facies of Germany undoubtedly has a parallelodontid hinge and appears to be the earliest member of the family. In the Middle Devonian, primarily in the shelf region deposits of the Rheic Ocean in Central Europe and eastern North America, a first, minor radiation occurred. With the transition from the Devonian to the Carboniferous, a second, more pronounced radiation of parallelodontids led to significantly higher parallelodontid diversity.

References

Amler, M.R.W. 1987. Fauna, Paläogeographie und Alter der Kohlenkalk-Vorkommen im Kulm des östlichen Rheinischen Schiefergebirges (Dinantium). Geologische Abhandlungen Hessen 88, 1-339.

Amler, M.R.W. 1989. Die Gattung Parallelodon Meek & Worthen 1866 (Bivalvia, Arcoida) im mitteleuropäischen Unterkarbon. Geologica et Palaeontologica 23, 53-69.

Amler, M.R.W. 1999. Synoptical classification of fossil and Recent Bivalvia. Geologica et Palaeontologica 33, 237-248.

Amler, M.R.W. 2004a. Late Famennian bivalve, gastropod and bellerophontid molluscs from the Refrath 1 Borehole (Bergisch Gladbach-Paffrath Syncline; Ardennes-Rhenish Massif, Germany). Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 251, 151-173.

Amler, M.R.W. 2004b. Bivalve biostratigraphy of the Kulm Facies (Early Carboniferous, Mississippian) in central Europe. Newsletters in Stratigraphy 40(3), 183-207.View article

Amler, M.R.W. 2014. Bivalves in Upper Devonian to Lower Mississippian biostratigraphy, 1021-1025. In Rocha, R., Pais, J., Kullberg, J.C. & Finney, S. (eds) STRATI 2013. First International Congress on Stratigraphy. Springer, Berlin.View article

Amler, M.R.W., Friedel, J.C. & Schneider, S. 2024. New tools for taxonomy: A revised terminology for Paleozoic and Mesozoic arcoid bivalve shells. The 95th Annual Meeting of the Paläontologische Gesellschaft (PalGes), Abstract Book, 4.

Archiac, E.J.A. d’ & Verneuil, P.E.P. de 1842. On the fossils of the older deposits in the Rhenish Provinces; preceded by a general survey of the fauna of the Palaeozoic rocks, and followed by a tabular list of the organic remains of the Devonian system in Europe. Transactions of the Geological Society of London 2(6), 303-408.View article

Arkell, W.J. 1930. The generic position and phylogeny of some Jurassic Arcidae. Geological Magazine 67, 297-310.View article

Astafieva-Urbajtis, K.A. 1994. Contribution to the revision of the family Parallelodontidae (Bivalvia). Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal 1994(2), 111-115. [in Russian]

Babin, C. 1966. Mollusques bivalves et cephalopodes du Paleozoique Armoricain. 471 pp. Imprimerie Commerciale et Administrative, Brest.

Babin, C., Jaouen, P.-A. & Racheboeuf, P.R. 2001. Les mollusques bivalves de la Formation de Kersadiou (Givétien du Massif armoricain). Palaeontographica, Abteilung A 261(1-3), 1-54.View article

Barrande, J. 1881. Systeme Silurien du centre de la Boheme. 1. Recherches Paléontologiques, 6: Classe des Mollusques. Ordre des Acéphalés. 342 pp. Published by the author, Prague & Paris.

Barrois, C. 1891. Mémoire sur la faune du Gres Armoricain. Annales de la Société Géologique du Nord 19, 134-237.

Becker, R.T., Gradstein, F.M. & Hammer, O. 2012. Chapter 22. The Devonian Period, 559-601. In Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.D. & Ogg, G.M. (eds) The Geologic Time Scale 2012, Vol. 2. Elsevier BV, Amsterdam.View article

Bender, P. 2008. Chapter 4.1.5 Lahn- und Dill-Mulde, 221-246. In Deutsche Stratigraphische Kommission (ed.) Stratigraphie von Deutschland VIII. Devon. Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Geowissenschaften 52.

Berg, T.M., McInerney, M.K., Way, J.H. & MacLachlan, D.B. 1983. Stratigraphic correlation chart of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geological Survey, 4th ser., General Geology Report 75, 1 sheet.

Bernard, F. 1897. Etudes comparatives sur la coquille des lamellibranches. II. Les genres Philobrya et Hochstetteria. Journal de Conchyliologie (series 3, vol. 37) 45(1), 6-47.

Beushausen, L. 1895. Die Lamellibranchiaten des rheinischen Devon mit Ausschluss der Aviculiden. Abhandlungen der Königlich Preussischen geologischen Landesanstalt, Neue Folge 17, 1-514.View article

Bieler, R., Carter, J.G. & Coan, E.V. 2010. Classification of bivalve families, 113-133. In Bouchet, P. & Rocroi, J.P. (eds) Nomenclator of bivalve families. Malacologia 52(2).

Bieler, R., Mikkelsen, P.M., Collins, T.M., Glover, E.A., González, V.L., Graf, D.L., Harper, E.M., Healy, J., Kawauchi, G.Y., Sharma, P.P., Staubach, S., Strong, E.E., Taylor, J.D., Tëmkin, I., Zardus, J.D., Clark, S., Guzmán, A., McIntyre, E., Sharp, P. & Giribet, G. 2014. Investigating the bivalve Tree of Life - an exemplar-based approach combining molecular and novel morphological characters. Invertebrate Systematics 28, 32-115.View article

Bradshaw, M.A. 1999. Lower Devonian bivalves from the Reefton Group, New Zealand. Memoirs of the Association of Australasian Palaeontologists 20, 1-171.

Carter, J.G., Campbell, D.C. & Campbell, M.R. 2000. Cladistic perspectives on early bivalve evolution, 47-79. In Harper, E.M., Taylor, J.D. & Crame, J.A. (eds) Evolutionary Biology of the Bivalvia. Geological Society London, Special Publication 177.View article

Carter, J.G., Altaba, C.R., Anderson, L.C., Araujo, R., Biakov, A.S., Bogan, A.E., Campbell, D.C., Campbell, M., Jin-Hua, C., Cope, J.C.W., Delvene, G., Dijkstra, H.H., Zong-jie, F., Gardner, R.N., Gavriola, V.A., Goncharova, I.A., Harries, P.J., Hartmann, J.H., Hautmann, M., Hoeh, W.R., Hylleberg, J., Bao-yu, J., Johnston, P., Kirkendale, L., Kleemann, K., Koppka, J., Kříž, J., Machado, D., Malchus, N., Márquez-Aliaga, A., Masse, J.P., McRoberts, C.A., Middelfart, P.U., Mitchell, S., Nevesskaja, L.A., Özer, S., Pojeta, J., Polubotko, I.V., Pons, J.M, Popov, S., Sánchez, T., Satori, A.F., Scott, R.W., Sey, I.I., Signorelli, J.H., Silantiev, V.V., Skelton, P.W., Steuber, T., Waterhouse, J.B., Wingard, G.L. & Yancey, T. 2011. A synoptical classification of the Bivalvia (Mollusca). Paleontological Contributions 4, 1-47.

Carter, J.G., Harries, P.J., Malchus, N., Sartori, A.F., Anderson, L.C., Bieler, R., Bogan, A.E., Coan, E.V., Cope, J.C.W., Cragg, S.M., García-March, J.R., Hylleberg, J., Kelley, P., Kleemann, K., Kříž, J., McRoberts, C., Mikkelsen, P.M., Pojeta, J. jr., Tëmkin, I., Yancey, T. & Zieritz, A. 2012. Part N, Revised, Volume 1, Chapter 31: Illustrated Glossary of the Bivalvia. Treatise Online 48, 1-209.View article

Chadwick, G.H. 1935. Faunal differentiation in the upper Devonian. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 46(2), 305-342.View article

Chapman, F. 1908. A monograph of the Silurian bivalved Mollusca of Victoria. Memoirs of the National Museum, Melbourne 2, 1-62.View article

Clarke, J.M. 1904. Naples fauna in western New York, part 2. New York State Museum, Memoir 6, 199-454.

Clarke, J.M. 1907. Some new Devonic Fossils. New York State Museum, Bulletin 107 (Geology 12), 153-291.

Clarke, J.M. & Swartz, C.K. 1913. Pelecypoda, 606-660. In Prosser, C.S. & Swartz, C.K. The Upper Devonian deposits of Maryland. Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore, MD.

Combosch, D.J. & Giribet, G. 2016. Clarifying phylogenetic relationships and the evolutionary history of the bivalve order Arcida (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Pteriomorphia). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 94(A), 298-312.View article

Cope, J.C.W. 1996a. The early evolution of the Bivalvia, 361-370. In Taylor, J. (ed.) Origin and evolutionary radiation of the Mollusca. Oxford University Press, Oxford.View article

Cope, J.C.W. 1996b. Early Ordovician (Arenig) bivalves from the Llangynog inlier, South Wales. Palaeontology 39(4), 979-1025.

Cope, J.C.W. 1997a. Affinities of the Early Ordovician bivalve Catamarcaia Sánchez & Babin, 1993 and its role in bivalve evolution. Geobios 20, 127-131.View article

Cope, J.C.W. 1997b. The early phylogeny of the class Bivalvia. Palaeontology 40(3), 713-746.

Cope, J.C.W. 2000. A new look at early bivalve phylogeny, 81-95. In Harper, E.M., Taylor, J.D. & Crame, J.A. (eds) The evolutionary biology of the Bivalvia. Geological Society London, Special Publication 177. DOI 10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.177.01.05

Cope, J.C.W. 2004. Bivalve and rostroconch molluscs, 196-208. In Webby, B.D., Paris, F., Droser, M.L. & Percival, I.G. (eds) The Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event. Columbia University Press, New York.View article

Cope, J.C.W. & Babin, C. 1999. Diversification of bivalves in the Ordovician. Geobios 32, 175-185.View article

Cope, J.C.W. & Kříž, J. 2013. The Lower Palaeozoic palaeobiogeography of Bivalvia, 221-241. In Harper, D.A.T. & Servais, T. (eds) Early Palaeozoic Biogeography and Palaeogeography. Geological Society of London, Memoir 38.View article

Cox, L.R. 1946. The fossils and age of the Sekondi Series (Upper Palaeozoic) of the Gold Coast. The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, including Zoology, Botany, and Geology (11) 13(105), 602-624.

Cox, L.R. 1959. The geological history of the Protobranchia and the dual origin of taxodont Lamellibranchia. Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London 33(5), 200-209.View article

Cox, L.R. 1960. Thoughts on the classification of the Bivalvia. Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London 34(2), 60-88.View article

Dahmer, G. 1915. Die Fauna der obersten Koblenzschichten von Mandeln bei Dillenburg. Jahrbuch der Königlich Preußischen geologischen Landesanstalt 36(1), 174-248.

Dall, W.H. 1889. On the hinge of pelecypods and its development, with an attempt toward a better subdivision of the group. American Journal of Science (series 3) 38(228), 445-462.View article

Dall, W.H. 1895. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of Florida, with especial reference to the Miocene silex-beds of Tampa and the Pliocene beds of the Caloosahatchie River. Part III, A new classification of the Pelecypoda. Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia, Transactions 3(3), 483-570.

Dall, W.H. 1898 (1896-1900). Pelecypoda, 346-429. In von Zittel, K.A. (ed.) Textbook of Palaeontology, Vol. 1. McMillan & Co, London.

De Koninck, L.G. 1885. Faune du Calcaire Carbonifere de la Belgique, 5. Lamellibranches. Annales du Musée Royal d’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique 11, 1-283.

Douvillé, H. 1912. Classification des Lamellibranches. Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France (4) 12(7), 419-467.

Eichele, O. 2014. Muscheln und Rostroconchien aus dem mittelrheinischen Unterdevon und den angrenzenden Regionen. Mainzer Naturwissenschaftliches Archiv, Beiheft 34, 1-229.

Foerste, A.F. 1909. The Bedford fauna at Indian Fields and Irvine, Kentucky. The Ohio Naturalist 9, 515-523.

Franke, C. 2006. Die Klerf-Schichten (Unter-Devon) im Großherzogtum Luxemburg, in der Westeifel (Deutschland) und im Gebiet von Burg Reuland (Belgien): fazielle und biostratigraphische Deutungen, 42-96. In Franke, C. (ed.) Beiträge zur Paläontologie des Unterdevons Luxemburgs (1). Ferrantia 46.

Franke, C. 2016. Die Fauna der Berlé-Quarzite in Luxemburg und West-Eifel, 5-110. In Franke, C. (ed.) Beiträge zur Paläontologie des Unterdevons Luxemburgs (4). Ferrantia 73.

Friedel, J.C. & Amler, M.R.W. 2024. Early Carboniferous parallelodontid Arcoida (Bivalvia) from the hercynotypic facies of the Rhenohercynian Basin and their Devonian origin. Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments 104, 511-534.View article

Gardner, R.N. & Campbell, H.J. 1997. The bivalve genus Grammatodon from the Middle Jurassic of the Catlins district, South Otago, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 40(4), 487-498.View article

Goldfuss, A. 1833-1841. Petrefacta Germaniae tam ea, quae in Museo Universitatis Regiae Borussicae Fridericiae Wilhelmiae Rhenanae servantur quam alia quaecunque in Museis Hoeninghusiano, Muensteriano aliisque extant, iconibus et descriptionibus illustrata. Abbildungen und Beschreibungen der Petrefacten Deutschlands und der angränzenden Länder, unter Mitwirkung des Herrn Grafen Georg zu Münster. 2. Teil, Text und Atlas. Zweiter Teil. 312 pp. Düsseldorf: Arnz & Comp.

Gray, J.E. 1854. A revision of the arrangement of the families of bivalve shells (Conchifera). The Annals and Magazine of Natural History (series 2) 13(77), 408-418.View article

Hall, J. 1883. Lamellibranchiata (plates and explanations). New York Geological Survey, Paleontology 5(1), pls 67-68. Albany, NY.

Hall, J. 1885. Natural History of New York. Palaeontology 5 (1). Lamellibranchiata 2, descriptions and figures of the Dimyaria of the upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung groups. 269-561, pls 34-80, 93-96. Geological Survey of New York, New York.

Hall, J. & Whitfield, R.P. 1869-1870. Preliminary notice of the lamellibranchiate shells of the upper Helderberg, Hamilton and Chemung groups, with others from the Waverly sandstones. Part 2. 80 pp. New York State Museum, Albany.

Herrick, C.L. 1888. Geology of Licking County. Part IV. Bulletin of the Scientific Laboratories of Denison University 4, 11-60, 97-123.

Hicks, H. 1873. On the Tremadoc rocks in the neighbourhood of St. David’s, South Wales, and their fossil contents. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 29(1), 39-52.View article

Hind, W. 1897. A monograph of the British Carboniferous Lamellibranchiata, Pt. 1 (2). Mytilidae, Arcidae, Nuculidae. Palaeontographical Society Monograph 51, 81-208.View article

Hyde, J.E. 1953. The Mississippian formations of central and southern Ohio. Ohio Division of Geological Survey, Bulletin 51, 1-355.

Isberg, O. 1934. Studien über Lamellibranchiaten des Leptaenakalkes in Dalarna. Beitrag zu einer Orientierung über die Muschelfauna im Ordovicium und Silur. 493 pp. H. Ohlsson, Lund.

Jansen, U. 2016. Brachiopod faunas, facies and biostratigraphy of the Pridolian to lower Eifelian succession in the Rhenish Massif (Rheinisches Schiefergebirge, Germany), 44-125. In Becker, R.T., Königshof, P. & Brett, C.E. (eds) Devonian Climate, Sea Level and Evolutionary Events. Geological Society London, Special Publication 423. DOI 10.1144/SP423.11

Johnston, P.A. 1993. Lower Devonian Pelecypoda from southeastern Australia. Memoirs of the Association of Australasian Palaeontologists 14, 1-134.

Kayser, E. 1872. Studien aus dem Gebiete des Rheinischen Devon. III. Die Fauna des Rotheisensteins von Brilon in Westfalen. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 24(4), 653-690.

Kegel, W. 1913. Der Taunusquarzit von Katzenelnbogen. Abhandlungen der Königlich Preußischen Geologischen Landesanstalt, Neue Folge 76, 1-162.

Knight, R. & Morris, N.J. 2019. Revision of the British Lower Jurassic Arcoidea (Bivalvia): palaeobiological, palaeoecological and evolutionary implications. Historical Biology 32(9), 1176-1205.View article

Knod, R. 1908. Devonische Faunen Boliviens, 493-600. In Steinmann, G. (ed.) Beiträge zur Geologie und Palaeontologie von Südamerika. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geologie und Palaeontologie 25.

Korejwo, K. & Teller, L. 1964. Upper Silurian non-graptolite fauna from the Chełm borehole (eastern Poland). Acta Geologica Polonica 14(2), 233-301.

Kříž, J. 1979. Devonian Bivalvia. Special Papers in Palaeontology 23, 255-257.

Kříž, J. 1999. Silurian and lowermost Devonian bivalves of Bohemian type from the Carnic Alps. Abhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt 56(1), 259-316.

Kříž, J. 2000. Lochkovian bivalves of Bohemian type from the eastern Anti-Atlas (Lower Devonian, Morocco). Senckenbergiana lethaea 80(2), 485-523.View article

Kříž, J. 2004. Latest Frasnian and earliest Famennian (Late Devonian) bivalves from the Montagne Noire (France). Senckenbergiana lethaea 84(1-2), 85-123.View article

Kříž, J. 2008. A new bivalve community from the lower Ludlow of the Prague Basin (Perunica, Bohemia). Bulletin of Geosciences 83(3), 237-280.View article

Kříž, J. & Steinová, M. 2009. Uppermost Ordovician bivalves from the Prague Basin (Hirnantian, Perunica, Bohemia). Bulletin of Geosciences 84(3), 409-436.View article

Lamarck, J.B.P.A. de Monet de (1809). Philosophie Zoologique, ou Exposition des Considérations Relative a l’Histoire Naturelle des Animaux; a la Diversité de Leur Organisation et des Facultés qu’ils en Obtiennent; aux Causes Physiques qui Maintiennent en Eux la Vie et Donnent lieu aux Mouvements qui’ils Exécutent; enfin, á celles qui Produisent, les Unes le Sentiment, et les Autres l’Intelligence de Ceux qui eu sont Doués. 2 vols. Dentu l’auteur, Paris.

Liljedahl, L. 1984a. Silurian silicified bivalves from Gotland. Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning C 804, 1-82.

Liljedahl, L. 1984b. Silicified bivalves from Gotland. Lund Publications in Geology 24, 1-28.

McAlester, A.L. 1962. Upper Devonian Pelecypods of the New York Chemung Stage. Peabody Museum of Natural History, Bulletin 16, 1-88.

McAlester, A.L. 1968. Type species of Paleozoic nuculoid bivalve genera. Geological Society of America, Memoir 105, 1-143.View article

McCoy, F. 1844. A synopsis of the characters of the Carboniferous Limestone fossils of Ireland. 207 pp. M.H. Gill, Dublin.View article

Meek, F.B. & Worthen, A.H. 1866. Description of Palaeozoic fossils from the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous rocks of Illinois and other western states. Proceedings of the Chicago Academy of Science 1, 11-23.

MolluscaBase 2025. Accessed online at http://www.molluscabase.org/.

Nagel-Myers, J. & Amler, M.R.W. 2007. Revision of Late Devonian Lunulacardiidae (Bivalvia) from the German Hercynian Facies. Geologica et Palaeontologica 41, 47-79.

Nagel-Myers, J., Amler, M.R.W. & Becker, R.T. 2008. Vetupraeca n. gen. and Mucopraeca n. gen. (Cryptodonta, Bivalvia): a reappraisal of Late Devonian bivalves from the Hercynian Facies. Journal of Paleontology 82(6), 1150-1160.View article

Nagel-Myers, J., Amler, M. R.W. & Becker, R.T. 2009. The Loxopteriinae n. subfam. (Dualinidae, Bivalvia): Review of a common bivalve taxon from the Late Devonian pelagic facies, 167-191. In Over, D.J. (ed.) Studies in Devonian Stratigraphy: Proceedings of the 2007 International Meeting of the Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy and IGCP 499. Palaeontographica Americana 63.

Nevesskaja, L.A. 2009. Principles of systematics and the system of bivalves. Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal 2009(1), 3-13. Paleontological Journal 43(1), 1-11.View article

Newell, N.D. 1954. Status of Invertebrate Paleontology, 1953. V. Mollusca: Pelecypoda. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 112(3), 161-172.

Newell, N.D. 1969. Order Arcoida Stoliczka, 1871, N248-N270. In Cox, L.R., Newell, N.D., Branson, C.C., Casey, R., Chavan, A., Coogan, A.H., Dechaseaux, C., Fleming, C.A., Haas, F., Hertlein, L.G., Keen, A.M., LaRocque, A., McAlester, A.L., Perkins, B.F., Puri, H.S., Smith, L.A., Soot-Ryen, T., Stenzel, H.B., Turner, R.D. & Weir, J. 1969. Systematic descriptions, N225-N907. In Moore, R.C. (ed.) Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part N, Mollusca 6 (Bivalvia). University of Kansas Press, Geological Society of America, Lawrence.

Newton, C.R., Whalen, M.T., Thompson, J.B., Prins, N. & Delalla, D. 1987. Systematics and paleoecology of Norian (Late Triassic) bivalves from a tropical island arc: Wallowa Terrane, Oregon. Journal of Paleontology 61, 1-83.View article

Nicol, D. 1984. Changes in the hinge teeth in Arcaceans from Devonian to Recent. Tulane Studies in Geology and Paleontology 18, 70-72.

Oliver, P.G. & Holmes, A.M. 2006. The Arcoidea (Mollusca: Bivalvia): a review of the current phenetic-based systematics, 237-251. In Bieler, R. (ed.) Bivalvia - a look at the branches. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 148.View article

Paeckelmann, W. 1913. Das Oberdevon des Bergischen Landes. Abhandlungen der Königlich Preußischen geologischen Landesanstalt, Neue Folge 70, 1-356.

Paul, H. 1941. Lamellibranchiata infracarbonica. Fossilium Catalogus, 1. Animalia 91, 1-348.

Phillips, J. & Salter, J.W. 1848. Palaeontological Appendix to Professor John Phillips’ Memoir on the Malvern Hills, compared with the Palaeozoic Districts of Abberley, &c. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and the Museum of Practical Geology in London 2(1), 331-386.

Pojeta, J. jr. 1971. Review of Ordovician pelecypods. United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper 695, 1-41.View article

Pojeta, J. jr., Kříž, J. & Berdan, J.M. 1976. Silurian-Devonian pelecypods and Paleozoic stratigraphy of subsurface rocks in Florida and Georgia and related Silurian pelecypods from Bolivia and Turkey. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 879, 1-32.View article

Pojeta, J. jr., Zhang, R.-J. & Yang, Z.-Y. 1986. Systematic paleontology of Devonian pelecypods of Guangxi and Michigan, 57-102. In Pojeta, J. jr. (ed.) Devonian Rocks and Lower and Middle Devonian Pelecypods of Guangxi, China, and the Traverse Group of Michigan. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 1394-G.View article

Prantl, F. & Růžička, B. 1955a. Šufia nov. gen., a new pelecypod from the Devonian of Bohemia. Sborník Ústředního ústavu geologického 21, 303-316.

Prantl, F. & Růžička, B. 1955b. Mnataia nov. gen., a new Devonian pelecypod from Bohemia. Acta Musei Nationalis Pragae, Series B - Historia Naturalis 11(5), 1-17.

Prosser, C.S. & Kindle, E.M. 1913. Pelecypoda, 214-279. In Prosser, C.S., Kindle, E.M. & Swartz, C.K. The Middle Devonian deposits of Maryland. Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore, MD.

Ratter, A. & Cope, J.C.W. 1998. New Silurian neotaxodont bivalves from South Wales and their phylogenetic significance. Palaeontology 41(5), 975-991.

Reinhart, P.W. 1935. Classification of the pelecypod family Arcidae. Bulletin du Musée Royal d’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique 11(13), 1-68.

Requadt, H. 2008. Chapter 4.1.4 Südwestliche Lahnmulde (Rheinland Pfalz), 204-220. In Deutsche Stratigraphische Kommission (ed.) Stratigraphie von Deutschland VIII. Devon. Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Geowissenschaften 52.

Roemer, F.A. 1860. Beiträge zur Kenntniss des nordwestlichen Harzgebirges. Palaeontographica 9(1), 1-46.

Rzehak, A. 1910. Der Brünner Clymenienkalk. Zeitschrift des Mährischen Landesmuseums 10, 149.

Sánchez, M.T. 1995. Comments on the genus Catarmarcaia Sanchez & Babin and the origin of the Arcoida. Geobios 28(3), 343-346.View article

Sánchez, M.T. & Babin, C. 1993. Un insolite mollusque bivalve, Catamarcaia nov. gen. de l’Arenig (Ordovicien inférieur) d’Argentine. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, 316(2), 265-271.

Sandberger, G. & Sandberger, F. (1849 [1850]-1856). Die Versteinerungen des Rheinischen Schichtensystems in Nassau. Mit einer kurzgefassten Geognosie dieses Gebietes und mit steter Berücksichtigung analoger Schichten anderer Länder. 564 pp., 39 pls. Kreidel & Niedner, Wiesbaden.View article

Simpson, G.B. 1890. Descriptions of new species of fossils from the Clinton, Lower Helderberg, Chemung, and Waverly Groups, found in the collections of the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 16(3), 435-460.View article

Sowerby, J. 1812-1815. The mineral conchology of Great Britain; or coloured figures and descriptions of those remains of testaceous animals or shells, which have been preserved at various times and depths in the earth, Vol. 1. 234 pp. + index, pls. 1-102. Published by the author, London.View article

Spriestersbach, J. 1919. Neue Versteinerungen aus dem Lenneschiefer. Jahrbuch der Preußischen geologischen Landesanstalt [für 1917] 38,1(3), 434-512.

Spriestersbach, J. 1942. Lenneschiefer (Stratigraphie, Fazies, u. Fauna). Abhandlungen des Reichsamtes für Bodenforschung Berlin 203, 1-219.

Steininger, J. 1853. Geognostische Beschreibung der Eifel. 143 pp. F. Lintz, Trier.Stewart, R.B. 1930. Gabb’s California Cretaceous and Tertiary type lamellibranchs. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Special Publications 3, 1-314.View article

Stiller, F. 2006. Early Jurassic shallow-marine bivalves from Xiaping, southern Hunan, China. Palaeontographica, Abteilung A 274, 1-70.View article

Talent, J.A. 1965. The Silurian and early Devonian faunas of the Heathcote District, Victoria. Geological Survey of Victoria Memoir 26, 1-55.

Thomas, R.D.K. 1976. Constraints of ligament growth, form and function on evolution in the Arcoida (Mollusca: Bivalvia). Paleobiology 2(1), 64-83.View article

Thomas, R.D.K. 1978a. Shell form and the ecological range of living and extinct Arcoida. Paleobiology 4(2), 181-194.View article

Thomas, R.D.K. 1978b. Limits to opportunism in the evolution of the Arcoida (Bivalvia). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B 284, 335-344.View article

Tromelin, G. de & Lebesconte, P. 1875. Note sur quelques fossiles des gres siluriens de Saint-Germain-sur-Ille, La Bouexiere, Champeaux, etc. (Ille-et-Vilaine). 8 pp. C. Cotonnec.

Venyukov, P.N. [Wenjukoff, P.N.] 1886. Fauna Devonskoj sistemy severozapadnoj I central’noj rossii. Trudy Sankt-Peterburgskogo obshchestva yestestvoispytateley 17(2), 417-707.

Verneuil, E.P. de & Keyserling, A. 1845. Paléontologie. In Murchison, R.I., Verneuil, E.P. de & Keyserling, A. Géologie de la Russie d’Europe et des Montagnes de l’Oural 2(3). 512 pp. J. Murray, Londres et Bertrand, Paris.

Waller, T.R. 1998. Origin of the molluscan class Bivalvia and a phylogeny of major groups, 51-67. In Johnston, P.A. & Haggart, J.W. (eds) Bivalves: An Eon of Evolution - Paleobiological Studies Honoring Norman D. Newell. University of Calgary Press, Calgary.

Whidborne, G.F. 1896-1907. A monograph of the Devonian fauna of the South of England. 3. The fauna of the Marwood and Pilton Beds of North Devon and Somerset. Palaeontographical Society Monographs 36(3), 1-247.

White, C.A. & Whitfield, R.P. 1862. Observations upon the rocks of the Mississippi valley which have been referred to the Chemung Group of New York, together with descriptions of new species of fossils from the same horizon at Burlington, Iowa. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History 8, 289-306.

Whiteaves, J.F. 1892. The fossils of the Devonian rocks of the islands, shores or immediate vicinity of Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis. Contributions to Canadian Palaeontology 1(6), 255-359.View article

Williams, H.S. & Breger, C.L. 1916. The fauna of the Chapman Sandstone of Maine, including descriptions of some related species from the Moore River Sandstone. United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper 89, 1-347.View article

Winchell, A. 1863. Descriptions of fossils from the Yellow Sandstones lying beneath the ’Burlington Limestone’, at Burlington, Iowa. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 15, 2-25.

Zhang, R.J. 1988. Stratigraphic and paleobiogeographic aspects of Devonian bivalves of China, 347-356. In McMillan, N.J., Embry, A.F. & Glass, D.J. (eds) Devonian of the World, Volume III: Paleontology, paleoecology and biostratigraphy. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, Calgary.