An invertebrate macrofauna from an early Holocene fjord-delta system, North Norway

 

Authors: Nielsen Jan K, Nielsen Jesper K, Evison K, Hanken N-M, Helama S

Published in: Bulletin of Geosciences, volume 93, issue 1; pages: 27 - 52; Received 22 May 2017; Accepted in revised form 20 September 2017; Online 28 March 2018

Keywords: molluscs, barnacles, radiocarbon, geochemistry, depositional conditions, benthic communities, bioprovinces,

full text (PDF, 3.02 MB)

Export to RIS

 

Abstract

During early Holocene, the Breivikeidet Valley of Troms County was part of a fjord system. Prodelta and delta slope deposits were formed, overlain by fluvial deposits, and are presently exposed in river sections. The depositional setting was influenced by sediment suspension and traction processes. Our geochemical analyses, together with implications from macrofauna and sedimentology, indicate an overall change from occasionally oxygen deficiency in marine waters to an overall fall in salinity, these changes finally leading to brackish and freshwater conditions. Radiocarbon dates confirm an early Holocene age (Preboreal, Boreal and Atlantic) of the deposits. Shells reworked from older deposits indicate Allerod and Younger Dryas ages. Bivalves, gastropods and barnacles are common and well preserved in the muddy prodelta deposits, whereas they are uncommon and poorly preserved in the delta slope sands. Faunal composition of the delta slope sands is numerically characterised by suspension-feeding endobenthos that have moderate to fast burrowing ability. The fossil macrofauna of the muddy prodelta deposits, on the other hand, can be much more diverse, including mobile to stationary endobenthos and epibenthos. The prodelta muds were close to normal marine in their salinity. The delta slope sands were probably somewhat brackish, while the topsets were formed in fluvial freshwater. Faunal composition indicates water depth of the ancient habitat having been equivalent to nearshore shelf to fjord-deltaic setting. A fjord-deltaic setting is evident by the sedimentology and adjacent steep topography. We conclude that the fossil macrofauna is in composition comparable with modern marine communities of the high-boreal province.

References

ANDERSEN, B.G. 1968. Glacial geology of western Troms, North Norway. Norges Geologiske Undersokelse 256, 1-160.

ANWAR, N.A., RICHARDSON, C.A. & SEED, R. 1990. Age determination, growth rate and population structure of the horse mussel (Modiolus modiolus). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 70, 441-457.View article

AURE, J., FOYN, L. & PETTERSEN, R. 1996. Miljoundersokelser i norske fjorder 1975-1994. 3. Nord-Troms: Tromosundet, Ullsfjord, Lyngenfjord og Kvanangen [Environmental monitoring of Norwegian fjords 1975-1994. 3. Nord-Troms: Tromosundet, Ullsfjord, Lyngenfjord and Kvanangen]. Fisken og Havet 28, 1-69.

BERNER, R.A. & RAISWELL, R. 1984. C/S method for distinguishing fresh-water from marine sedimentary rocks. Geology 12, 365-368.View article

BOESCH, D.F. & ROSENBERG, R. 1981. Response to stress in marine benthic communities, 179-200. In BARRETT, G.W. & ROSENBERG, R. (eds) Stress Effects on Natural Ecosystems. John Wiley, Chichester.

BROCH, H. 1924. Cirripedia Thoracica von Norwegen und dem norwegischen Nordmeere. Eine Systematische und Biologisch-Tiergeographische Studie. Videnskapsselskapets Skrifter. I, Matematisk-naturvidenskabelig klasse, 17, 1-121.

BRONK RAMSEY, C. 2009. Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 51, 337-360.View article

BROWN, T. 1827. Illustrations of the recent conchology of Great Britain and Ireland. 125 pp. D. Lizars, Edinburgh.

BRUGUIERE, J.G. 1789. Encyclopédie méthodique. Histoire naturelle des vers. 1, 757 pp. Panckoucke, Paris. View article

CORNER, G.D. 1980. Preboreal deglaciation chronology and marine limits of the Lyngen-Storfjord area, Troms, North Norway. Boreas 9, 239-249.View article

CORNER, G.D. & FJALSTAD, A. 1993. Spreite trace fossils (Teichichnus) in a raised Holocene fjord-delta, Breidvikeidet, Norway. Ichnos 2, 155-164.View article

CORNER, G.D. & HAUGANE, E. 1993. Marine-lacustrine stratigraphy of raised costal basins and postglacial sea-level change at Lyngen and Vanna, Troms, northern Norway. Norsk Geologisk Tidskrift 73, 175-197.

CORNER, G.D., NORDAHL, E., MUNCH-ELLINGSEN, K. & ROBERTSEN, K.R. 1990. Morphology and sedimentology of an emergent fjord-head Gilbert-type delta: Alta delta, Norway, 155-168. In COLELLA, A. & PRIOR, D.B. (eds) Coarse-Grained Deltas. International Association of Sedimentologists, Special Publication 10.View article

CRAIG, H. 1954. Carbon 13 in plants and the relationships between Carbon 13 and Carbon 14 variations in nature. The Journal of Geology 62, 115-149.View article

DAGESTAD, A., TONNESEN, J.F. & DALSEGG, E. 2006. Hydrogeologiske undersokelser ved Ramfjordmoen, Tromso kommune [Hydrogeological investigations at Ramfjordmoen, Tromso municipality]. Norges Geologiske Undersokelse, Report 2005.079, 1-34.

DARWIN, C. 1854a. A Monograph on the sub-class Cirripedia with Figures of all the Species. The Balanida, (or sessile cirripedes); The Verrucida, etc. 684 pp. The Ray Society, London.

DARWIN, C. 1854b. A Monograph on the fossil Balanida and Verrucida of Great Britain. 44 pp. The Palaontographical Society, London. View article

DUFOUR, S.C. 2005. Gill anatomy and the evolution of symbiosis in the bivalve family Thyasiridae. Biological Bulletin 208, 200-212.View article

EILERTSEN, R.S., CORNER, G.D., AASHEIM, O. & HANSEN, L. 2011. Facies characteristics and architecture related to palaeodepth of Holocene fjord-delta sediments. Sedimentology 58, 1784-1809.View article

EKMAN, S. 1953. Zoogeography of the Sea. 417 pp. Sidgwick and Jackson, London.

EVISON, K. 2012. Sedimentologiske, Paleookologiske og Diagenetiske Undersokelser av Holocene Deltaavleiringer ved Breivikeidet, Troms [Sedimentological, Palaeoecological and Diagenetic Investigations of Holocene Delta Deposits at Breivikeidet, Troms]. GEO-3900, 93 pp. Master thesis, University of Tromso, Tromso, Norway.

FEYLING-HANSSEN, R.W. 1955. Stratigraphy of the marine late Pleistocene of Billefjorden, Vestspitsbergen. Skrifter Norsk Polarinstitutt 107, 1-186.

FLESSA, K.W. & KOWALEWSKI, M. 1994. Shell survival and time-averaging in nearshore and shelf environments: estimates from the radiocarbon literature. Lethaia 27, 153-165.View article

GBIF 2014a. The Global Biodiversity Information Facility: GBIF Backbone Taxonomy, 2013-07-01. Delectopecten greenlandicus (Sowerby, 1842). Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre, Natural History Museum, University of Oslo. http://www.gbif.org/species/2285988 on 2014-07-27

GBIF 2014b. The Global Biodiversity Information Facility: GBIF Backbone Taxonomy, 2013-07-01. Phaxas pellucidus (Pennant, 1777). Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre, Natural History Museum, University of Oslo. Invertebrates (GBIF-SE:SMNH), GBIF-Sweden. http://www.gbif.org/species/2287245 on 2014-07-30

GBIF 2014c. The Global Biodiversity Information Facility: GBIF Backbone Taxonomy, 2013-07-01. Neptunea despecta (Linnaeus, 1758). Bergen Museum (Gastropoda), Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre, Natural History Museum, University of Oslo. Invertebrates (GBIF-SE:SMNH), GBIF-Sweden. http://www.gbif.org/species/2304684 on 2014-07-30

GMELIN, J.F. 1791. Caroli a Linné. Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. 13th edition, 1(6), 3021-3910. G.E. Beer, Lipsiae.

GRÉMARE, A., DUCHENE, J.C., ROSENBERG, R., DAVID, E. & DESMALADES, M. 2004. Feeding behaviour and functional response of Abra ovata and A. nitida compared by image analysis. Marine Ecology Progress Series 267, 195-208.View article

GRONLIE, O.T. 1945. Postglaciale skjellbanker pa Langnes ved Tromso [Postglacial shell banks on Langnes at Tromso]. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift 25, 159-167.

HALD, M. & VORREN, T.O. 1983. A shoreline displacement curve from the Tromso district, North Norway. Norsk Geologisk Tidskrift 63, 103-110.

HEDGPETH, J.W. 1957. Estuaries and lagoons. II. Biological aspects. 693-729. In HEDGPETH, J.W. (ed.) Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleocology, Volume 1 Ecology, The Geological Society of America, Memoir 67.

HELAMA, S., HEIKKILÄ, P., RINNE, K., NIELSEN, J.K. & NIELSEN, J.K. 2015. LA-ICP-MS-derived U-concentrations and microstructural domains within biogenic aragonite of Arctica islandica shell. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 187, article 260.View article

HELAMA, S, NIELSEN, J.K., NIELSEN, J.K., HANKEN, N.M. & EVISON, K. 2014. Preboreal oscillations within the North Atlantic inferred from Arctica islandica sclerochronology. Geobios 47, 305-313.View article

HELAMA, S., SCHÖNE, B.R., KIRCHHEFER, A.J., NIELSEN, J.K., RODLAND, D.L. & JANSSEN, R. 2007. Compound response of marine and terrestrial ecosystems to varying climate: pre-anthropogenic perspective from bivalve shell growth increments and tree-rings. Marine Environmental Research 63, 185-199.View article

HILMO, B.O. 2011. Grunnvannskartlegging i Tromso Kommune [Groundwater Mapping in Tromso Municipality]. 18 pp. Asplan Viak AS, Report VRL46-2011-001.

HOLMES, G.W. & ANDERSEN, B.G. 1964. Glacial chronology of Ullsfjord, northern Norway. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 475, D159-D163.

HUMMEL, H. 1985. Food-in take of Macoma balthica (Mollusca) in relation to seasonal changes in its potential food on a tidal flat in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 19, 52-76.View article

HUNTER, W.R. 1949. The structure and behaviour of Hiatella gallicana (Lamarck) and H. arctica (L.), with special reference to the boring habit. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Section B. Biology 63, 271-289.View article

HURRELL, J.W., 1995. Decadal trends in the North Atlantic oscillation, regional temperatures and precipitation. Science 269, 676-679.View article

HURRELL, J.W. & DESER, C. 2010. North Atlantic climate variability: the role of the North Atlantic oscillation. Journal of Marine Systems 79, 231-244.View article

HOISATER, T., SNELI, J.A., WIKANDER, P.B. & BRATTEGARD, T. 2001a. Bivalvia, 264-278. In BRATTEGARD, T. & HOLTHE, T. (eds) Distribution of Marine, Benthic Macroorganisms in Norway. A Tabulated Catalogue. Directorate for Nature Management, Research Report 2001-3.

HOISATER, T., SNELI, J.A., WIKANDER, P.B. & BRATTEGARD, T. 2001b. Prosobranchia, 230-247. In BRATTEGARD, T. &

HOLTHE, T. (eds) Distribution of Marine, Benthic Macroorganisms in Norway. A Tabulated Catalogue. Directorate for Nature Management, Research Report 2001-3.

JENSEN, A.S. 1901. Studier over nordiske Mollusker [Studies on Nordic molluscs]. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den Naturhistoriske Forening i Kjobenhavn 1900, 133-158.

JENSEN, A.S. & SPÄRCK, R. 1934. Bloddyr II. Saltvandsmuslinger [Molluscs II. Saltwater Bivalves]. 280 pp. Dansk Naturhistorisk Forening, G.E.C. Gads Forlag, Kobenhavn. Danmarks Fauna 40.

JORGENSEN, C.B. 1981. Mortality, growth, and grazing impact on a cohort of bivalve larvae, Mytilus edulis L. Ophelia 20, 185-192.View article

KARTVERKET 2015. Tidevannstabeller. For den Norske Kyst med Svalbard samt Dover, England [Tidal Tables. For the Norwegian Coast with Svalbard and Dover, England]. 89 pp. 79. Årgang 2016.

KERCKHOF, F. 2002. Barnacles (Cirripedia, Balanomorpha) in Belgian waters, an overview of the species and recent evolutions, with emphasis on exotic species. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Biologie 72 (Supplement), 93-104.

KIDWELL, S.M. & BOSENCE, D.W.J., 1991. Taphonomy and time-averaging of marine shelly faunas, 115-209. In ALLISON, P.A. & BRIGGS, D.E.G. (eds) Taphonomy. Releasing the Data Locked in the Fossil Record. Plenum, New York.

KIAR, H. 1902. Niveauforandring eller transport ved drivis [Level changes or transport by drift ice]. Naturen, Bergens Museum, 1902 (12), 364-367.

KIAR, H. 1908. Om kvartartidens marine afleiringer ved Tromso [About Quaternary marine deposits at Tromso]. Tromso Museum Aarshefter 25(1902), 17-44.

KOWALEWSKI, M., FLESSA, K.W. & HALLMAN, D.P. 1995. Ternary taphograms: triangular diagrams applied to taphonomic analysis. Palaios 10, 478-483.View article

KRANZ, P.M. 1974. The anastrophic burial of bivalves and its paleoecological significance. Journal of Geology 82, 237-265.View article

LEVENTHAL, J.S. 1995. Carbon-sulfur plots to show diagenetic and epigenetic sulfidation in sediments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59, 1207-1211.View article

LINDAHL, O., BELGRANO, A., DAVIDSSON, L. & HERNROTH, B. 1998. Primary production, climatic oscillations, and physico-chemical processes: the Gullmar Fjord time-series data set (1985-1996). ICES Journal of Marine Science 55, 723-729.View article

LINNAEUS, C. 1758. Systema natura per regna tria natura, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. 10th edition, 1. 824 pp. Laurentii Salvii, Holmia. View article

LINNAEUS, C. 1767. Systema natura per regna tria natura, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. 12th edition, 2. 533-1327 pp. Laurentii Salvii, Holmia. View article

LYNCH, J. 1990. Provisional elemental values for eight new geochemical lake sediment and stream sediment reference materials LKSD-1, LKSD-2, LKSD-3, LKSD-4, STSD-1, STSD-2, STSD-3 and STSD-4. Geostandards Newsletter 14, 153-167.View article

MADSEN, F.J. 1949. Marine Bivalvia. The Zoology of Iceland 4(63), 1-116.

MANGERUD, J. 1972. Radiocarbon dating of marine shells, including a discussion of apparent age of recent shells from Norway. Boreas 1, 143-172.View article

MANGERUD, J. 1977. Late Weichselian sediments containing shells, foraminifera, and pollen, at Ågotnes, western Norway. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift 57, 23-54.

MANGERUD, J., BONDEVIK, S., GULLIKSEN, S., HUFTHAMMER, A.K. & HOISATER, T. 2006. Marine 14C reservoir ages for 19th century whales and molluscs from the North Atlantic. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 3228-3245.View article

MANGERUD, J. & GULLIKSEN, S. 1975. Apparent radiocarbon ages of Recent marine shells from Norway, Spitsbergen, and Arctic Canada. Quaternary Research 5, 263-273.View article

MARTHINUSSEN, M. 1962. 14C-datings referring to shore lines, transgressions, and glacial substages in northern Norway. Norges Geologiske Undersokelse, Årbok 215, 37-67.

METTE, M.J., WANAMAKER, A.D. JR., CARROLL, M.L., AMBROSE, W.G. JR. & RETELLE, M.J. 2015. Linking large-scale climate variability with Arctica islandica shell growth and geochemistry in northern Norway. Limnology and Oceanography 61, 2016, 748-764.View article

MONTAGU, G. 1808. Supplement to Testacea Britannica. 183 pp. S. Woolmer, Exeter.

MÖLLER, H.P.C. 1842. Index molluscorum Groenlandia. 24 pp. I.G. Salomon, Hafnia.View article

MORSE, J.W. & BERNER, R.A. 1995. What determines sedimentary C-S ratios? Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59, 1073-1077.View article

MOLLER, J.J. 1987. Shoreline relation and prehistoric settlement in northern Norway. Norsk Geografisk Tidskrift 41, 45-60.View article

MOLLER, J.J. 1989. Geometric simulation and mapping of Holocene relative sea-level changes in northern Norway. Journal of Coastal Research 5, 403-417.

MOLLER, J.J., FJALSTAD, A., HAUGANE, E., JOHANSEN, K.B. & LARSEN, V. 1986. Kvartargeologisk vernevardige omrader i Troms [Quaternary geologically worth preserving areas in Troms]. Tromura, Naturvitenskap 49, 1-302.

MÜLLER, O.F. 1776. Zoologiae Danica prodromus, seu Animalium Dania et Norvegia indigenarum characteres, nomina, et synonyma imprimis popularium. 274 pp. Typiis Hallageriis, Havnia.View article

MÜLLER, O.F. 1779. Von zwoen wenig bekannten Muscheln, der Schinkenarche und der gerunzelten Mahlermuschel. Beschäftigungen der Berlinischen Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde 4, 55-59.

NIELSEN, J.K. 2004. Taphonomy in the light of intrinsic shell properties and life habits: Marine bivalves from the Eemian of northern Russia. Paläontologische Zeitschrift 78, 53-72.View article

NIELSEN, J.K., HANKEN, N.-M. & NIELSEN, J.K. 2004. The relationships between early diagenetic calcite concretions and shell dissolution in subaerially exposed Holocene marine sediments, North Norway. Abstracts, Scientific Sessions, 32nd International Geological Congress 32(1), p. 166.

NIELSEN, J.K., HELAMA, S. & NIELSEN, J.K. 2008. Taphonomy of freshwater molluscs in carbonate-poor deposits: a case study of the river pearl mussel in northeastern Finnish Lapland. Norwegian Journal of Geology 88, 103-116.

NYDAL, R. 1960. Trondheim natural radiocarbon measurements II. American Journal of Science Radiocarbon Supplement 2, 82-96.View article

OCKELMANN, W.K. 1958. The zoology of East Greenland. Meddelelser om Gronland 122, 1-256.

ÓLAFSSON, E.B. 1986. Density dependence in suspension-feeding and deposit-feeding populations of the bivalve Macoma balthica: a field experiment. Journal of Animal Ecology 55, 517-526.View article

OLIVER, P.G., HOLMES, A.M., KILLEEN, I.J. & TURNER, J.A. 2016. Marine bivalve shells of the British Isles. Amgueddfa Cymru - National Museum Wales. http://naturalhistory.museumwales.ac.uk/britishbivalves

PEACOCK, J.D. 1993. Late Quaternary marine mollusca as palaeoenvironmental proxies: a compilation and assessment of basic numerical data for NE Atlantic species found in shallow water. Quaternary Science Reviews 12, 263-275.View article

PENNANT, T. 1777. British Zoology. Vol. IV. Crustacea. Mollusca. Testacea. 154 pp. Benj. White, London.

PETERSEN, C.G.J. 1913. Valuation of the sea. II. The animal communities of the sea bottom and their importance for marine zoogeography. Reports of the Danish Biological Station 21, 1-44.

PETERSEN, C.G.J. 1914. Appendix to report 21. On the distribution of the animal communities of the sea bottom. Reports of the Danish Biological Station 22, 1-7.

PETERSEN, C.G.J. 1918. The sea bottom and its production of fish-food. A survey of the work done in connection with valuation of the Danish waters from 1883-1917. Reports of the Danish Biological Station 25, 1-62.

PETERSEN, C.G.J. 1924. A brief survey of the animal communities in Danish waters, based upon quantitive samples taken with the bottom sampler. American Journal of Science, Series 5, 7, 343-354.View article

PETERSEN, G.H. 1958. Notes on the growth and biology of the different Cardium species in Danish brackish water areas. Meddelelser fra Danmarks Fiskeriog Havundersogelser, New Series 2(22), 1-31.

PETERSEN, G.H. 1977. The density, biomass and origin of the bivalves of the Central North Sea. Meddelelser fra Danmarks Fiskeriog Havundersogelser 7, 221-273.

ETERSEN, G.H. 1999. Five Recent Mya species, including three new species and their fossil connections. Polar Biology 22, 322-328.View article

PETERSEN, G.H. 2001. Studies on some Arctic and Baltic Astarte species (Bivalvia, Mollusca). Meddelelser om Gronland, Bioscience 52, 1-71.

PETERSEN, G.H. & RUSSELL, P.J.C. 1973. The nomenclature and classification of some European shallow-water Cardium species. Malacologia 14, 233-234.

PETERSEN, K.S. 2004. Late Quaternary environmental changes recorded in the Danish marine molluscan faunas. Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin 3, 1-196.

PETTERSEN, K. 1880. Terrasser og gamle strandlinjer [Terraces and old shorelines]. Tromso Museums Aarshefter 3, 1-52.

PHILIPPI, R.A. 1836. Enumeratio molluscorum Sicilia cum viventium tum in tellure tertiaria fossilium, quae in itinere suo observavit. 1. 267 pp. Schropp, Berolini.View article

PHILIPPI, R.A. 1845. Kritische Bemerkungen über einige Trochus-Arten und die Gattung Axinus. Zeitschrift für Malakozoologie 1845(June), 87-91.

POULSEN, E.M. 1935. De danske farvandes rurer (Balanomorpha og Verrucomorpha) [The Danish waters’ barnacles (Balanomorpha and Verrucomorpha)]. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra Dansk Naturhistorisk Forening 99, 5-27.

POWILLEIT, M., GRAF, G., KLEINE, J., RIETHMULLER, R., STOCKMANN, K., WETZEL, M.A. & KOOP, J.H.E. 2009. Experiments on the survival of six brackish macro-invertebrates from the Baltic Sea after dredged spoil coverage and its implications for the field. Journal of Marine Systems 75, 441-451.View article

RAISWELL, R. & BERNER, R.A. 1986. Pyrite and organic matter in Phanerozoic normal marine shales. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 50, 1967-1976.View article

RASMUSSEN, E. 1973. Systematics and ecology of the Isefjord marine fauna (Denmark). Ophelia 11, 1-507.View article

REES, E.I.S., NICHOLAIDOU, A. & LASKARIDOU, P. 1977. The effects of storms on the dynamics of shallow water benthic associations, 465-474. In KEEGAN, B.F., O’CEIDIGH, P. & BOADEN, P.J.S. (eds) Biology of Benthic Organisms. 11th European Symposium on Marine Biology.

RICHARDSON, C.A., IBARROLA, I. & INGHAM, R.J. 1993. Emergence pattern and spatial distribution of the common cockle Cerastoderma edule. Marine Ecology Progress Series 99, 71-81.View article

REIMER, P.J., BARD, E., BAYLISS, A., BECK, J.W., BLACKWELL, P.G., BRONK RAMSEY, C., GROOTES, P.M., GUILDERSON, T.P., HAFLIDASON, H., HAJDAS, I., HATTÉ, C., HEATON, T.J., HOFFMANN, D.L., HOGG, A.G., HUGHEN, K.A., KAISER, K.F., KROMER, B., MANNING, S.W., NIU, M., REIMER, R.W., RICHARDS, D.A., SCOTT, E.M., SOUTHON, J.R., STAFF, R.A., TURNEY, C.S.M. & PLICHT, J. VAN DER 2013. IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon age calibration curves 0-50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55, 1869-1887.View article

RUDDIMAN, W.F. & MCINTYRE, A. 1973. Time-transgressive deglacial retreat of polar waters from the North Atlantic. Quaternary Research 3, 117-130.View article

RUSSELL, P.J.C. & PETERSEN, G.H. 1973. The use of ecological data in the elucidation of some shallow water European Cardium species. Malacologia 14, 223-232.

SALEN, O.H. 1950. The hydrography of some fjords in northern Norway. Balsfjord, Ulfsfjord, Grotsund, Vengsoyfjord and Malangen. Tromso Museums Årshefter, Naturhistorisk Avdeling Nr. 38, 70 (1947, No. 1), 1-102.

SARS, G.O. 1878. Bidrag til Kundskaben om Norges arktiske Fauna. I. Mollusca Regionis Arctica Norvegia. Oversigt over de i Norges arktiske Region forekommende Bloddyr [Contribution to the Knowledge about Norway’s Arctic Fauna. I. Mollusca Regionis Arctica Norvegia. Overview over Molluscs occurring in Norway’s Arctic Region]. 466 pp. A.W. Brogger, Christiana.View article

SCHÄFER, W. 1962. Aktuo-paläontologie nach Studien in der Nordsee. 666 pp. Verlag Waldemar Kramer, Frankfurt am Main.

SCHUMACHER, C.F. 1817. Essai d’un nouveau systeme des habitations des vers testacés. 287 pp. Schultz, Copenhagen.

SCRUTON, P.C. 1960. Delta building and the deltaic sequence, 82-102. In SHEPARD, F.P., PHLEGER, F.B. & VAN ANDEL, T.H. (eds) Recent Sediments, Northwest Gulf of Mexico. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Special Publication 21.

SNELI, J.A. & BRATTEGARD, T. 2001. Cirripedia, 152-155. In BRATTEGARD, T. & HOLTHE, T. (eds) Distribution of Marine, Benthic Macroorganisms in Norway. A Tabulated Catalogue. Directorate for Nature Management, Research Report 2001-3.

SOOT-RYEN, T. 1924. Faunistische Untersuchungen im Ramfjorde. Tromso Museums Aarshefter 45 (1922, No. 6), 1-106.

SOOT-RYEN, T. 1932. Hydrographical investigations in the Ramfiord 1924-25. Tromso Museums Årshefter, Naturhistorisk Avdeling Nr. 2, 51 (1928, No. 4), 1-21.

SOOT-RYEN, T. 1934. Hydrographical investigations in the Tromso District 1930. Tromso Museums Årshefter, Naturhistorisk Avdeling Nr. 3, 52 (1929, No. 1), 1-78.

SOWERBY, G.B. II 1842. Thesaurus conchyliorum, or monographs of genera of shells. 1, 438 pp. G.B. Sowerby, junior (ed.), Sowerby, London.

SPENGLER, L. 1793. Beskrivelse over et nyt Slagt af de toskallede Konkylier, forhen af mig kaldet Chana, saa og over det Linnéiske Slagt Mya, hvilket noiere bestemmes, og inddeles i tvende Slagter [Description of a new genus of the bivalved conchs, previously by me called Chana, also of the Linnean genus Mya, which is determined in more details, and divided into two genera]. Skrivter af Naturhistorie-Selskabet 3(1), 16-69.

STEPHENSEN, K. 1933. Havedderkopper (Pycnogonida) og Rankefodder (Cirripedia) [Sea Spiders (Pycnogonida) and Barnacles (Cirripedia)]. Dansk Naturhistorisk Forening, G.E.C. Gads Forlag, Kobenhavn. Danmarks Fauna 38, 1-158.

TEBBLE, N. 1976. British Bivalve Seashells. A Handbook for Identification. 212 pp. British Museum (Natural History), Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, Edinburgh, 2nd edition.

THEISEN, B.F. 1973. The growth of Mytilus edulis L. (Bivalvia) from Disko and Thule district, Greenland. Ophelia 12, 59-77.View article

THOMPSON, I., JONES, D.S. & DREIBELBIS, D. 1980. Annual internal growth banding and life history of the ocean quahog Arctica islandica (Mollusca: Bivalvia). Marine Biology 57, 25-34.View article

THOMSEN, E. & VORREN, T.O. 1986. Macrofaunal palaeoecology and stratigraphy in Late Quaternary shelf sediments off northern Norway. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 56, 103-150.View article

THORSON, G. 1933. Investigations on shallow water animal communities in the Franz Joseph Fjord (East Greenland) and adjacent waters. Meddelelser om Gronland 100(2), 1-68.

THORSON, G. 1934. Contributions to the animal ecology of the Scoresby Sound fjord complex (East Greenland). Meddelelser om Gronland 100(3), 1-67.

THORSON, G. 1957. Bottom communities (sublittoral or shallow shelf), 461-534. In HEDGPETH, J.W. (ed.) Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleoecology Vol. I. Geological Society of America Memoir 67.View article

VORREN, T.O., STRASS, I.F. & LIND-HANSEN, O.W. 1978. Late Quaternary sediments and stratigraphy on the continental shelf off Troms and West Finnmark, northern Norway. Quaternary Research 10, 340-365.View article

WIBORG, K.F. 1962. Haneskjellet, Chlamys islandica (O. F. Müller) og dets utbredelse i noen nordnorske fjorder [The Iceland scallop, Chlamys islandica (O. F. Müller) and its distribution in some northern Norwegian fjords]. Fisken og Havet, Rapporter og Meldinger fra Fiskeridirektoratets Havforskningsinstitutt Bergen, 1963(3), 17-23.

WIBORG, K.F. 1963. Some observations on the Iceland scallop Chlamys islandica (O.F. Müller) in Norwegian waters. Fiskeridirektoratets Skrifter Serie Havundersokelser 13, 38-53.

WIKANDER, P.B. 1980. Biometry and behaviour in Abra nitida (Müller) and A. longicallus (Scacchi) (Bivalvia, Tellinacea). Sarsia 65, 255-268.View article

WITBAARD, R. 1996. Growth variations in Arctica islandica L. (Mollusca): a reflection of hydrography-related food supply. ICES Journal of Marine Science 53, 981-987.View article

WITBAARD, R. & BERGMAN, M.J.N. 2003. The distribution and population structure of the bivalve Arctica islandica L. in the North Sea: what possible factors are involved? Journal of Sea Research 50, 11-25.View article